AN

E   S   S   A   Y

ON  THE

A   R   T   o f    W  A  R.

Translated from the French of Count TURPIN [DE CRISSÉ],

By Captain JOSEPH OTWAY.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

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LONDON,

Printed by A. HAMILTON,

For W. JOHNSTON, in Ludgate-Street,

MDCCCLXI.

Transcription © 2008

John Kenneth Rowland

T H E

P R E L I M I N A R Y  D I S C O U R S E.

IF it be true, that the dignity of sciences is more, or less in proportion to their usefulness, how apparently does the art of war claim the first place?  War is a great evil, but it is inevitable, and oftentimes necessary.  If he, who first reduced to rules, the art of destroying his fellow-creatures, had no end in view but to gratify the passions of princes, he was a monster, whom it would have been happy to have smothered at his birth:  but if his intention was the defence of persecuted virtue, or the punishment of successful wickedness, to curb ambition, or to oppose the unjust claims of superior power, mankind ought to erect altars to his memory.

            War, in the last case, is the most necessary, and useful of all the sciences:  the various kinds of knowledge, which ought to furnish the mind of a soldier, are not without great difficulty to be attained.  Of most other sciences the principles are fixed, or at least, they may be ascertained by the assistance of experience; there needs nothing but diligence to learn them, or a particular turn of mind to practise them.  Philosophy, mathematics, architecture, and many others, are all founded upon invariable combinations.  Every man, even of a narrow understanding, may remember rules, apply them properly, and sometimes draw just consequences from them:  but the study of war is of another kind.  Experience can so seldom be referred to rules, that nothing but a mind [ii] enlightened by diligent study can make a due application of rules to circumstances.

            Most artists may join practice to theory, and make on perfect by the help of the other.  The warrior has not always the like assistance; he spends part of his life in forming plans, of which humanity does not suffer him to wish the execution; and when he has an opportunity of judging from experience of the solidity of his principles, the operations are so rapid, the motions so diversified, the actions so confused, that he has scarcely time for a glimpse of those things which require the most calm and close consideration.

            In learning of every kind, theory is the completion; in the study of the military science, it is only the introduction.  Many a man, depending on his rules, has found that the marches, the camps, the dispositions, the manœuvres performed with exact and strict order in the closet, have not only been very difficult, but even impracticable in the field.  A disposition good in a mountainous country, would be bad in an open one; a disposition proper for one open country may fail in another, for want of foreseeing that a manœuvre, which in one case may have been the cause of winning a battle, may in another occasion its loss:  the circumstances of time and place almost always throw the best constructed systems out of order.  It is therefore only by dint of study, and by the contemplation of cases incessantly varied, that the want of practice can be supplied, or action at least made less difficult.

            A military man who would be master of his profession, has no hours to lose; in peace, he ought to study with the greatest diligence; in time of war, he will see his principles open themselves of their own accord; his ideas are then more distinct, he acts with clearness and certainty in all cases he has foreseen, and applies his rules to all those which now occur for the first time, and which till then had escaped his thoughts.  Who [iii] does not know that bravery, courage, and comprehension, are useless and often fatal to a military man, who wants knowledge of his business?  Having no previous helps from study, it often happens that the braver he is, the more he is liable to mistakes, and the less able to foresee or avoid them.

            The science of war branches out into so many particulars, it takes in so many different parts; there are so many reflections necessary to be made, so many circumstances and cases to be brought together, that it is only by a continual application, grounded upon the love of his duty, and an inclination to his profession, that any man can attain it.

            To march an army in every sort of country, whether open, woody, or mountainous; to know how to form a camp in all these countries, with which the general must be thoroughly acquainted, in order to do it with security; to make a proper disposition for a battle, whether with a view to the posture of the enemy, or to the situation of the country; to foresee events which depend, in a manner, upon chance; to be capable of making a good retreat on proper occasions; to direct the forages without fatiguing, or exposing the troops; to send out detachments with precaution; to conduct the convoys in safety; to know how to canton an army, and to settle it in winter-quarters in such a manner, that by the just disposition of all the parts, it may be able to assemble readily on the first order, though widely dispersed; to establish magazines in places, both safe and within reach of the army, so that it shall never be in want of substance; these are the great ends of the military science.  The Alexanders of Parma, the Spinolas, the Gustavuses, the Weimars, the Condé, the Turennes, the Montécucullis, the Vendomes, the Marlboroughs, the Eugenes, and all the great men who have gone before us, would never have been the subject of our admiration, if they had neglected this study in any of its branches.  It is by courage, genius, and [iv] capacity, by having an head always cool, and an eye at once quick and exact; by a nice knowledge of the country, by skill in the choice of officers, and by strict discipline kept up in his army, that a general is enable to take such just measures as will frustrate the designs of the enemy.

            [viii] ...  A quick eye is natural in some, and in them it is the effect of genius; others acquire it by study or experience; he, who knows how to command himself, and has courage enough to keep himself cool on the most urgent occasions, has the readiest and quickest eye.  A quick hot-headed man, however brave, sees nothing, or if he does, it is confusedly and generally too late.

            It is this quick eye which enables him to judge of an advantageous post, of a manœuvre to be made, and of a good disposition for the troops, whether with respect to that of the enemy, or to the situation and nature of the country.

            There is a quickness of eye which depends upon the enemy, and another independent of him; it depends upon the enemy when he has made such a disposition, that to attack him another must be made upon the spot, which renders his defective and weak in some part; or when being advantageously posted, the general obliges him to change his position, by making him fearful of being taken in flank, or being surrounded, or when it is so contrived as to render the troops on the right useless by attacking the left, without their being able to assist it.  ...

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BOOK [THE] FIRST.

C H A P.  I.

Of the Knowledge of a Country.

A Campaign of which the plan is well formed, and the dispositions well concerted, may nevertheless prove unsuccessful, if the general, to whose direction they are intrusted, hath not a thorough knowledge of the country in which they are to be carried into execution.  The marches, camps, convoys, forages, detachments; in short, the most important operations, will be performed with impropriety, if this knowledge is not previously acquired; events are often determined by it.

            There is one knowledge of a country, which for an officer to be without, should be considered as a reproach; that of the situation of cities, towns, villages, forests, streams, rivers, which is to be acquired by studying of geographical maps.  There is another branch of knowledge yet more particular, such as, of the passes, or the boundaries of the country, the situation, the nature of the ground, whether it is plain, or divided by hollows, rivulets, hills, &c. which is to be acquired by the assistance of topographical maps.  In the study of these last, care must be taken, not [2] blindly to follow the marks they lay down.  It very seldom happens, that topographical maps are perfectly exact:  for besides the many circumstances, which may sometimes in a year alter a large extent of country, they seldom take notice of fords, bridges over the small rivulets, small hills, and hollows of little importance; neither can they mark whatever may be occasioned by recent inundations and disruptions of the earth:  whereas any of there unforeseen circumstances may prove an obstruction to a great design, either by retarding the march of an army, preventing a column of troops from advancing, or leaving the enemy in possession of some passes, from which he might have been driven. 

            It is nevertheless impossible for a map to explain every particular:  for example, an hollow way may be marked, but its depth will still remain unknown; neither can it show whether the ascent and descent of it be easy or difficult.  A general, studious to avoid the imputation of negligence, ought, before he engages in an enterprize, to make himself acquainted with every particular relating to the country, and by that means make up for the deficiencies of the maps.  In short, if he is desirous of fixing a camp in a position strong by situation, but unacquainted how that is to be done, or in what manner the wings can be supported, he should then get information whether there is any river by which the camp may be covered, whether this river can be passed easily, and what is the nature of its banks.

            In order to avoid the errors into which a general may be drawn by maps, the safest method is to apply to the inhabitants of the country, and go over it with the most intelligent of them, and remark every obstacle, however trifling it may appear. 

            For marching with greater security, a general ought to form a company of guides of the peasants, be assured of their fidelity, and attach them to him by all possible methods, particularly by unbounded liberality.  It is by money only that trusty spies and faithful guides can be secured; the [3] latter are less expensive, but full as necessary as the former.  Parsimony should be avoided in war; for, as Vigetius observes, money should never be spared, when expence is necessary to secure possession.  In proportion as an army advances into a country, great care must be taken to change the guides. 

            The command of this company should be given to an intelligent man, who should be perfectly acquainted with every thing relating to the country, and who should also be fully able to answer any objections started by the general or officer that accompanies him.  This company of guides will be capable of informing the general of whatever may have escaped his observation; of directing him in his inquiries, by which means his discoveries will always be to be depended upon.  By this manner of proceeding, neither will the position, or the distance of one place from another, nor the situation of any particular city, town, or village, nor any circumstance be unknown to a general who joins their information to what he himself already knows:  he will be informed of all the pathways, of the different roads leading into the country, and what number of them terminate at the same point; he will judge what number of men, either horse or foot, can march abreast, whether the enemy can prevent his pursuing his intended route, by taking the field, and to what distance he will be able to march in safety.

            The general should send out detachments along with some of there guides to examine the streams which cross the country, whether or no their mouths are at a distance, into what river they empty themselves, from whence they take their source, whether they may be easily forded, if their banks are steep or sloping, marshy or covered with bushes; other detachments should he employed in examining the woods, in order to find out whether troops can pass through them, or not.

            [4] A general ought himself to examine into the truth of the reports made to him by these small detachments, or send out others more considerable, under the command of general officers:  however certain a general may be of the fidelity of his spies and guides, yet he should not always rely upon their reports:  mistrust, which in general is accounted a vice, may at most be esteemed a virtue in the business of war. 

            Furnished with there lights, a general can allot the easiest road to the artillery and baggage, the shortest to the infantry, and longest to the cavalry:  he can at once judge from the nature of the ground, into how many columns the army can be divided, in order to expedite the march, and what dispositions will be necessary for the columns with regard to the enemy's position.

            By the knowledge of the country, a general is informed of what camps the enemy doth, or can occupy, and of those necessary to be taken to oppose his designs; whether the enemy's detachments can easily approach, or how he can himself advance towards him, without being discovered; is there is forage in the neighbourhood of the enemy's camp, or whether he is obliged to draw it from a distance; where he hath fixed his magazines, and whether an attempt to carry them off is practicable or not; in what manner his quarters are disposed, and which of them is most exposed; what distance there is between himself and the enemy; where the enemy hath established posts, and which those are, that himself ought to occupy with regard to the situation of his own camp and quarters, and those belonging to the enemy; which is the properest road for the detachments and the patroles to keep, in order to gain intelligence; and lastly, with what degree of ease the enemy can attack the army on its march, and whether in front or flank.  This knowledge is essential to a general in every kind of country; but in a woody or mountainous country, it would become more particularly dangerous, and even impossible for him to march an army, is unacquainted with it.

            [5] By the maps, a general will know whether there be forests in a country; but if he does not endeavour to get a more particular information, he will be unacquainted with the nature of them; whether they are boggy, smooth, or rugged, and, consequently, whether it be possible for the troops, artillery, and baggage, to pass through them.   ...

            This example tends to prove, that maps are not always to be relied on.  There can be no reason to doubt that the duke of Burgundy was [6] furnished with the most exact:  but yet it is probable that he might not have succeeded in this enterprize, if he had neg1ected fending M. d’Alegre to survey the passes, and examine two, before he proceeded to that through which he marched.

            The following is a general rule:  That it is upon the ground, and not upon maps, that the roads through which an army is to march, must be examined, as well as the situation of places where camps are to be fixed, and fields of battle chosen.  An army should never move before ways are opened for every column:  with regard to a detachment it is different, as there may [sic] circumstances arise, which will prevent the general from foreseeing what road it may take.  The command of a detachment should always be given to an intelligent officer, and one who has made his business his only study; who hath been particularly careful to acquire a knowledge of the country, and of whose genius the general should entertain no doubt.  A particular choice stirs up emulation in young men, and induces them to exert their utmost endeavours to deserve so distinguishing a mark of approbation.

            Into how many mistakes have even the greatest generals fallen, by not being thoroughly acquainted with a country, and by suffering themselves to be guided by general notions?  M. de Feuquieres cites many examples of great enterprizes which have miscarried by it. ...

            [9] ... With this company of guides, and an exact knowledge of the country, a general will be enabled to undertake an enterprize, that another with double the number of troops durst not think of attempting.  These precautions will furnish him with stratagems, oftentimes more efficacious than force and courage:  under the appearance of flight, a general will often get possession of an advantageous post, and decoy the enemy into one, that may prove his undoing. ...

            It hath frequently happened, and will continue to do so, that a general who knows how to take advantage of the knowledge of the country, although inferior in point of force, may change a defensive, into an offensive war. ...

            The knowledge of a country is still more essential in retreats:  there is more art and more precaution required in a retreat, than in any other action; that operation is the conclusion of all preceding ones.  If a general, obliged to retreat precipitately, hath but a superficial knowledge of the country, how will he be able to reassemble his troops, reestablish order, or march with any degree of security? ...

            [13] ...The knowledge of a country is as necessary for a private officer, as for the commander in chief, because he is to execute in part, what the general performs with all the troops.  When an officer, to whose conduct an expedition is intrusted, joins this knowledge, one of the chief branches of military science to practice and experience, he will, with so much the greater ease, comprehend and execute the general's intention and plan; and he will be also enabled to take the properest measures for success:  if, on the contrary, he begins a march without being acquainted with the country, his mind misgiving him, will encrease the danger, by the very means he takes to avoid it :  he will suppose it in places, where there is nothing to be feared, and often fall into it where he was least apprehensive of it.  Thus prepossessed, he will always remain undetermined and by this prepossession his attention will be taken off from many things [14] of the greatest Importance:  suppose him as brave as possible and his intention to execute the orders given him equally good, he will of course be drawn into mistakes by his over-care to avoid them. ...

C H A P.  II.

Of the Preparations before taking the Field,

and the March of an Army on leaving its Quarters to go into Cantonments.

<pp 15ff>

[20]

C H A P.  III.

The March of an Army in an open Country.

IF, according to the observation of Vegetius, an army is in a more dangerous situation upon a march than when it is drawn up in order of battle, because a soldier, not seeing his enemy, is not so much upon his guard, there is consequently a greater degree of precaution required in a general, that he may not be surprised by an unexpected attack, or fall into ambuscades, the likelihood of which should always make him proceed with caution.

            It is upon a thorough knowledge of the country which is the seat of war, that a general should direct the march of armies; that he should [21] concert measures for conducting them in safety; and that he will be enabled to foresee the enemy’s motions. ...  

            <Roads in Open Country>

            ... it is very imprudent for a general to suppose himself entirely free from danger upon a march, for the consequences of self-security are generally fatal:  the effects of negligence in any military operation are pernicious, but more particularly so upon a march; and although a general should never fear his enemy when in presence of him, he should nevertheless always apprehend the worst from him, when he is out of his sight.

            <Number of Marching Columns>

            [22] ... A general should never cause an army to move without having previously considered and examined the intended march of it, nor without a thorough knowledge of the enemy’s position and where he is, or without knowledge particularly [of] the ground intended to encamp on.  An army ought never to move but with some design, either to seize on some advantageous post, to prevent an intended march of the enemy’s, to draw him into a disadvantageous situation, to deprive him of subsistence, or to procure some for itself....

            [23]      <Reconnaissance>

            Before the march is planned, and the number of columns determined upon in which the army is to march, notwithstanding the general is acquainted with the country, he should send out a detachment some days before, to reconnoitre the intended route of the army, as well as the camp it is to occupy.  This detachment is to be commanded by the officers of the day appointed for its setting out:  they must have staff-officers and guides with them, to conduct and to inform them of the nature of whatever may prove to be an obstacle....

            <Division of Army into Detachments>

            <Reconnaissance of Camp Area>

            ... The knowledge of the situation of the camp being attained, each detachment will return by the road it came; but first, the [24] commanding officer of each detachment will make a report to the general of the roads they have passed, what discoveries they have made, and, in short, will give him a particular detail of every thing they have met with on their way, whether woods, villages, hollows, bridges, and of every thing they have done to render the road easy for the column that is to pass through it....

            <March Security>

            <Order of March>

[25]      <Advanced and Rear Guards>

            <Flank Protection>

[26]      <Protection for Front Attack>

            <Shifting from March to Order of Battle>

[27]      <Campements>

            <Flank Protection>

[29]      <Leaving Camp>

C H A P.  IV.

The March of an Army in a mountainous and woody Country.

<pp. 30ff>

C H A P.  V.

Of Camps in offensive War.

<pp. 44ff>

CHAP VI

Of Camps in defensive War.

<pp. 51ff>

[64]

C H A P.  VII.

Of the Methods of escorting Convoys.

THE conducting of convoys is one of the most important and most difficult of all military operations....

            All these considerations suppose a general to be a man whose natural parts are matured by experience, and who is sensible that, without a thorough knowledge of the country, the foundation of all conduct, it will be impossible to make a proper disposition of troops.  If a general is ignorant of the places most proper to form ambuscades; of those where there are bridges and fords; of the passes which are most dangerous, [65] and those which will favour the enemy’s approach, in order to attack, and whether in head, flank, or rear, he acts but as chance directs, and his dispositions will have no meaning, either with respect to the situation of places, or the nature of the ground; the orders will be ill executed, the evolutions performed without exactness; and the disposition of the troops will be faulty; the separate bodies being, consequently, unable to sustain and assist each other, will soon be beaten and dispersed, and the convoy carried off.

            The general officer commanding the convoy ought, for its security, to distribute his troops after such a manner that they may be a mutual assistance to it.  The choice of troops to form the escort is undetermined, as it is by the nature of the country their quality should be decided.  In mountainous and woody countries, only infantry, hussars, or dragoons can be made use of; the hussars and dragoons are to march in the front and on the flanks, to scour the woods, examine the avenues, and make sure of the defiles:  in an open country, the escort should be composed of infantry, cavalry, hussars, or dragoons.  But whatever may be the nature of the country, the convoy ought never to advance without first sending out detachments to reconnoitre at a distance. 

            If the convoy marches through a mountainous country, a large body of cavalry would not only be useless, but also an embarrassment, as it would be unable to act, except with great difficulty; whereas in an open country, cavalry is very serviceable.  In any kind of country a convoy can be escorted with infantry, especially when the enemy can only act with his; but as in an open country, it is necessary for the infantry to be supported, the cavalry must be used for that purpose; in a mountainous country, infantry can carry on war alone.

            [66] In the last case the officer commanding the escort ought to place a body of infantry at the head, another in the center, and a third at the rear-guard; to distribute small bodies at proper distances on the right and left, and he should be particularly careful to possess himself of the heights; the hussars must be distributed to the advanced and rear-guards, and, in order to be more certain that every part hath been strictly examined, as the convoy advances, notwithstanding the hussars of the advanced guard have already scoured the avenues, woods, valleys, villages, and hollows, the hussars belonging to the rear-guard should again look into those places, to see whether any thing hath escaped the notice of the advanced guard:  these precautions are never without their use, and do not in the least retard the march of the convoy. ...

            [68] ... Hussars are more particularly necessary in the escorting of convoys, because they scamper about on all sides, and are very active and ready in scouring a country thoroughly; they leave no place till they have perfectly examined it, unless the thickness of the woods or any other unavoidable obstacle should prevent their penetrating as far as they would otherwise do; and even then they protect the infantry, who can with greater ease pass into those places where the hussars cannot.  Whatever country the convoy passes through, there should always be hussars with it; otherwise the officer commanding the escort cannot be certain that the country is thoroughly surveyed, because for want of hussars he must employ cavalry on that service; not that there can be any doubt of the cavalry’s exposing itself to danger with as much chearfulness and courage as the hussars, but as the horses belonging to the cavalry are naturally heavier than those of the hussars, and often encumbered with forage, they cannot venture to a proper distance, without running the danger of being taken, because they cannot retire with that expedition which is requisite; on the other hand, the hussar being more active and more accustomed to reconnoitre, knows how to go over a country with proper caution and care of himself:  besides, the trooper who is used always [69] to march in a body and to be under command, will have a very imperfect idea of the method of scouring a country.  Altho’ the disposition of the troops should always be regulated by the nature of the country thro’ which the convoy marches, and by the nature and number of the enemy by which it is liable to be attacked, yet the general should never neglect, whatever his situation may be, to secure the head, center, and rear:  before the convoy begins its march, the disposition in case of an attack should be settled; by which means the commanding officers of different corps will know where to post themselves, and after what manner to act at the time the attack is made.  By the knowledge which the commanding officer ought to have of the country, he will form a judgment of those places where it is most probable he may be attacked, and of course make his dispositions accordingly.  In any disposition that may happen, a general should always foresee in what manner the attack, defence, and retreat will be conducted.  ...

C H A P.  VIII.

Of Detachments for forming a Chain of green Forage.

<pp. 76-86>

[87]

C H A P.  IX.

Of the Detachments for forming a Chain of dry Forage.

IF there is great exactness and knowledge required in the conducting of parties for green forage, those for dry forage perhaps require more; and, in general, every thing that regards foraging parties, whether green or dry, excites a particular attention in the commander in chief; and, according to the chevalier Folard, all success in war depends upon secrecy, diligence, activity, and the thorough knowledge of the country.

[C H A P.  X.]

[Typographical error in original  – This Chapter number was not used]

[95]

C H A P.  XI.

The March of a Detachment of Infantry and Dragoons

in an open Country divided by Rivers.

ALTHOUGH the dispositions and operations of a detachment do not take in so many particulars as the march of an army, it is nevertheless necessary to lay down the rules which must be observed, in an accurate manner, and how they vary, according to the country through which a detachment is conducted.

            A detachment is liable to be attacked upon its march, because it is impossible to be always certain, that the enemy, by their spies, have not received intelligence of it; neither can the commanding officer always foresee by what forces he will be opposed.  The objects for detachments are many; they are sent either to carry assistance, to guard a communication, to prevent the enemy’s foraging too near the camp, to hinder him from raising contributions, to keep him at a distance from the army, or, in the end, to bring him to action: if the intention of a detachment is to carry assistance, it should avoid meeting the enemy as much as possible, that the march of it may not be retarded; if to guard a communication, it must also avoid the enemy, till it shall be arrived at the post it is ordered to occupy; if to hinder the enemy from raising contributions, to keep him at a distance; or to bring him to action, it ought to try every method for finding and fighting him, at the same time not neglecting such precautions as are most safe and necessary.

            A detachment is much less exposed to danger in an open than in a mountainous country, because the enemy cannot so easily form ambuscades, and are sooner discovered.

            [96] When the commanding office of the detachment shall have made his disposition, and considered circumstances properly, he will form small troops or parties, to march in the front, on the flanks, and in the rear, and to examine the country.  These parties, of which there should be many, will scour the whole country, and send out scouts, who, although they do not keep any particular road, must nevertheless be careful not to lose sight of the troops from which they are detached, that they may join them and the gross of the detachment immediately after having discovered the enemy.

            The scouts will stop at every village or hamlet that falls in their way, and endeavour to gain intelligence; and if they should chance to receive any, they will give immediate notice of it to the officer commanding the party from which they were detached, who will immediately report it to the commanding officer of the detachment. ...

[105]

C H A P.  XII.

Of the March of a Detachment of Infantry and Hussars

in a woody and mountainous Country.

ALTHOUGH there are many more particulars to be attended to in the march of an army than of a detachment sent out only on some particular occasion; nevertheless, the ability of the officer commanding it is not less conspicuous; for the strength of the latter being small in comparison to that of the former, the commanding officer hath greater occasion for multiplying precautions, and practising the stratagems of war.

            It is not so difficult to conduct a detachment composed on infantry and hussars through a woody and mountainous country as through an open one; but nevertheless as the enemy can with greater ease form ambuscades in a country that is covered, the detachment can only advance slowly, and not till after having thoroughly examined the country.

            The precautions necessary to be used are the same with those mentioned in the foregoing chapter, at least as far as relates to the dispositions before the beginning of the march, with this difference, that the country up front will be scoured by hussars instead of dragoons.  It is unnecessary for these patroles to be strong, as they will be unable to make head in a mountainous country against the infantry that will attack them; but by being dispersed in small parties, they will easily retire to the main body of the detachment.  These parties should make the strictest examinations, and endeavour to go round the mountains as much as possible, and never quit any avenue or pathway before it is thoroughly examined.  If the avenues only are examined and the heights neglected, the detachment [106] will remain in a state of uncertainty; and as it will be very difficult for hussars to reach the tops of the mountains, some corps of infantry should be detached not only to examine and scour the country, but also to occupy the heights, and dispute the possession of them with the enemy.

            In case the hussars who form the rear-guard are attacked by infantry, they should have orders to join that belonging to the detachment, as hath been already said with regard to the dragoons; but if they are attacked by hussars, they are upon an equality with them, and should stand their ground, and some platoons of infantry should also be distributed upon their flanks, which will certainly give them an advantage over the enemy.  There is scarcely any ground whatever so narrow as not to allow a body of infantry to be posted in it sufficient to cover the hussars of the advanced and rear-guards....

            If the officer commanding the detachment is thoroughly acquainted with a mountainous country, he will march with great security through it, as he will have a perfect knowledge of the places, where it is most probable ambuscades will be formed, and of those where he himself can [107] have an opportunity of attacking the enemy.  It is very certain, that in a confined country the enemy cannot present a larger front than the detachment, which cannot be flanked, particularly if care has been taken to secure the heights. ...

            [110] ... There is more address required to carry on war among mountains, than in a plain, although a general can never employ too much in either; if, in the former case, a general finds more opportunities of forming ambuscades, he is also more liable to be surprised; and if any precaution, however trifling, is neglected, the troops are in danger every step they take.  A commanding officer should always know what is doing in his front, which knowledge if he cannot attain, either through his own means, or by means of detachments, he should endeavour to form conjectures of, which may be equivalent: the caution with which Fabius Cunctator proceeded against the Carthaginians, was never imputed to him as a crime.

[111]

C H A P.  XIII.

Of the March of a Detachment composed of Cavalry and Hussars,

in an open Country.

IT is very astonishing that the generality of authors, who have wrote upon the military art, have neglected treating upon the evolutions of cavalry, notwithstanding it, in a great measure, constitutes the strength of an army.  Vegetius informs us only of the method practiced by the ancient Romans for teaching their troopers the art of riding; and the qualifications which Xenophon requires in his scouts, are more applicable to hussars than to heavy cavalry.

            The moderns have regarded the evolutions of the infantry as only worthy of their attention; and as the whole bent of their instructions is to bring them to perfection, they mention the cavalry but in a very superficial manner.  It is most undoubtedly true that cavalry cannot be used in all countries, but in an open one it is able to prosecute a war without assistance, and secures and covers the wings of that infantry it is capable of attacking.

            It would be very dangerous to give into the opinion of the chevalier de Folard, who seems to hold cavalry in no great estimation, and who also pretends that it only serves to embarrass an army, unless he had added, that too numerous a body of cavalry would be too expensive, and would also be exposed to great inconveniences from the difficulty of procuring sufficient forage.

[123]

C H A P.  XIV.

The Retreat of a Detachment of Infantry and Dragoons,

in an open Country divided by Rivers.

THE conducting of a detachment obliged to retreat, supposes more talents and skill in the officer charged with it, than are often required in operations which, to appearance, are more important: he hath not only a superior enemy to avoid, but he must also raise the drooping courage, and dissipate the terror of his soldiers.  The retreat of an army undoubtedly requires still greater knowledge in a general, because the number retreating is ore considerable, and the extent of ground which the troops occupy, greater; and, consequently, being unable at once to perceive all the motions of the enemy in such a manner as to oppose them, he must remedy that inconvenience by an unbounded activity and foresight: on the contrary, an officer leading a detachment has all his troops together immediately under his eye; he distinctly sees those belonging to the enemy, and consequently can, with greater ease, counter-act his dispositions; but nevertheless the smallness of number is a new cause for terror to the soldier, whose fear always magnifies his danger, and entirely destroys those reasons which should induce him to take fresh courage. ...

[135]

C H A P.  XV.

The Retreat of a Detachment of Cavalry and Hussars,

in a woody and mountainous Country.

LTHOUGH all military operations of course present difficulties, and require deep consideration in the person whose conduct they are entrusted, there are still some more difficult than others, and where the least oversight, either in the disposition of the troops, or in the exactness of the evolutions, may be productive of an entire defeat.

            An officer commanding a detachment obliged to retreat from before a superior enemy, ought to be more particularly possessed of that quickness of eye by which he will be enabled to turn the mistakes of the enemy to his own advantage, and to oppose art to number, as well as great coolness in judging of the dispositions proper to be taken to avoid being deceived; and a thorough knowledge of the country, to prevent his falling into places which may retard his march, or to be drawn into any ambuscades the enemy may have prepared for him. ...

C H A P.  XVI.

The Retreat of a Detachment of Cavalry in an open Country

<pp. 144-153>

____________________________________________________________________________________

[155]

BOOK THE SECOND.

[Captain James Anderson]

E S S A Y

ON THE

A R T  O F  W A R:

IN WHICH

The GENERAL PRINCIPLES

OF

All the Operations of WAR in the FIELD

Are fully Explained.

The Whole

Collected from the Opinions of the best Authors.

LONDON:

Printed for A. MILLAR, in the Strand.

M.DCC.LXI.

Transcription © 2008

John Kenneth Rowland

___________________________________________________________________________

Of Honour.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of Valour. ___________________________________________________________________________

Of War.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Art of War.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of Levying Troops.

___________________________________________________________________________

[21]

 Of the Qualities of an Officer.

ALMOST every Parent breeds up his Children in a Profession according to his own Caprice, without the least Attention to whether Nature has given the Child the Talents necessary for the Profession or not.  Professions, merely mechanical, it is true, may be acquired by Application and Exercise; but there are others which require Sense, Parts, Judgment, and Courage; and, to succeed in Arts or Sciences, it is necessary that Nature has given the Children certain Talents, which Parents ought to consult, before they destine them to any particular Profession.  But now-a-days they chuse Employments for them at Random, and, without examining their natural Bent and Inclination, often chuse for them those which neither suit their Character nor Constitution:  From hence it comes, that we see one, a Churchman, who would have made an excellent Captain of Dragoons; and another serving in the Army, who was born for Tranquility and Retirement.  There are plain honest Men, who think ill enough of the Army to believe, that those are only fit for it who are good for nothing else:  This Child, say they, is fit for nothing; he’s a Drunkard, a Debauchee, or a lazy indolent Fellow; what can I do with him?  Why make him an Officer.  This is really doing little Honour to the military State.  But let the World judge from what we are going to say, how much these honest weak Men are mistaken.

            [23] ...  The Study of Languages is most useful to an Officer, and he feels the Necessity of it in Proportion as he rises to high Employments.  We take it for granted, that a young Man, who has received a tolerable Education, has a Tincture of Latin; but as all the World do not speak Latin, and that he will often be obliged, in Point of Duty, to question Prisoners, Spies, Peasants, and others who are ignorant of that Language; it is fit he learn the Language of the People who inhabit the Frontiers where War is commonly made:  Thus the German and French Languages are very necessary for an English Officer, as the French and Italian are for a German; in short, the English, Italian, German and French, are Languages very interesting for every Officer. 

            Many People may think this is requiring too much, and that it is very difficult for one Man to acquire so much Knowledge; we confess, were he to possess every Branch in Perfection, the Life of a Man would scarce suffice to be perfect in them; but it is necessary for an Officer to have a general Notion of the whole:  Practice, and the Reflections he will make in Time of War on the Necessity of applying them, will insensibly perfect the first Knowledge he has acquired, especially if he has the noble Ambition of being willing to distinguish and raise himself by his Knowledge. ...

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Of the General of an Army.

THE General of an Army is the Officer in Chief, to whom the Prince has judged proper to intrust the Command of his Troops; and this whether he is known by the Name of Captain General, as in England and Spain, Feldt Mareschal as in Germany, or Mareschal as in France. 

            The natural qualities of the General of an Army, ought to be a martial Genius, a solid Judgment, a healthy robust Constitution, Intrepidity and Presence of Mind on critical Occasions, Indefatigability in Business, Goodness of Heart, Liberality, Birth, the more illustrious it is, the more it commands Respect; a reasonable Age; if too, young, he may want Experience and Prudence; if too old, he may not have Vivacity enough; an uniform Conduct, an affable Humour, but inflexible in maintaining the Police and Discipline of the Army. 

            The acquired Qualities of a General are, Secrecy, Justice, Sobriety, Temperance, Knowlege of the Art of War from Theory and Practice, the Art of commanding, and speaking with Precision and Exactness, great Attention to preserve the Lives [30] and supply the Wants of the Soldiers, and a constant Study of the Characters of the Officers of his Army, that he may employ them according to their Talents.  He must in Person, exposing himself as little as Possible, reconnoitre the Position of the Enemy’s Army, the interesting Posts which he would attack, an advantageous Camp which he would occupy, and the Nature of the Country, that he may regulate critical Marches, or cover Foragers or Convoys.  The exact Knowlege of the Situation of Places, of the Passes and Roads in and out of a Country, is essential for the General of an Army.  “It is that Knowledge, says Machiavel in his Prince, that teaches him properly to conduct his Army, to encamp them, to surprize the Enemy, and give Battle with Advantage.”  Philopemen, Prince of Achaia, is praised by all the Greek Historians, because, in Time of Peace, his Thoughts were always on War:  Travelling with his Friends, he would often stop and confider the Ground, and then ask them, If the Enemy were on that Hill, and we here, who would have the Advantage?  How should we properly march to them, and attack them in Form?  If we were to retire, how ought we to do it?  If they retire, how ought we to pursue them?  And they having given their Opinion, gave his, with his Reasons for it:  So that, when employed in War, he never met with any thing new.

            The General of an Army should have no other Passion, but to render himself useful to his Master; he should despise Flatterers, and listen to those who speak Truth; it is more necessary that he  should be loved than feared; and he never should forget that he is placed as an Example to his Army. ...

            A General should spare no Trouble or Expence to be well informed of every Thing that passes with the Enemy, either by Means of Parties, or of Spies whom he should pay well, if he would be well served:  Nothing is more absolutely necessary or more useful than Spies, whom Strada, with Reason, calls the Eyes and Ears of Princes:  We see in the Scripture, that God himself commanded Moses to send out Spies to the Land of Promise, and all the Instructions a General can possibly give to the Spies [32] he employs, are to be found in the thirteenth Chapter of  Numbers. ...         

___________________________________________________________________________

 Of the Lieutenant-general.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Major-general.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Staff of the Army.

THE Staff properly exits only in Time of War.  The Quarter-Master General may be reckoned the first Person belonging to it.  He works with the General on whatever regards the Marches of the Army; and, the Evening before they are to move, he gives to each General Officer, who is to conduct a Column, a Copy of what regards him, and to the General Officers of the Day a Copy of the whole Order of that Day, that they [37] may know how to cause every thing to be executed which is ordered by the General.  He also keeps a Roll of the General Officers, and makes them be advertised when there is any thing new, which regards their Tour to march.  He marches to the new Camp with the Major-General of the Day, and distributes the Ground which the Major-General has marked out to be occupied by the Army; he makes the Fourier mark the Head-Quarters, and the Quarters of the other General Officers; he visits the Avenues of the Camp, reconnoitres the Country round about, and makes the Inhabitants  give him exact Information; and, on the Report he makes the General, he receives his Orders for regulating the Marches of the Army, in the Manner the General intends they should be executed.  It is he who delivers to each of the General Officers a Copy of the Order of Battle; and he signs and distributes all the Orders for Foraging, and commonly reconnoitres the Quarters where the Army can forage.  In short, though he has no direct Authority over the Troops, as he is continually with the General, whore Orders almost always pass through his Hand, and as he necessarily possesses the Secret of the Movements of the Army, this Employment gives very great Consideration to him who exercises it, and requires an intelligent Officer, well versed in the great Parts of War:  He has commonly three or four Assistants, to ease him in his Functions, and they are commonly gratified, at the End of some Campaigns, with a Colonel’s Rank.  The Quarter-Master General, in a Day of Action, stays close by the General, and on every other Day he goes to receive the Parole from the Major-General of the Day; but, when necessarily employed, he sends one of his Assistants to receive the Parole, and fetch it to him. 

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Commandants of Artillery, and Engineers.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Aides-de-Camp.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Composition of Troops.

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Duty of Particular Officers

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Exercise of Troops

___________________________________________________________________________

Of Discipline and Punishments

___________________________________________________________________________

Of Rewards

___________________________________________________________________________

Of the Greek and Roman Militia

___________________________________________________________________________

The Greek and Roman Arms and Orders of Battle,

compared from Polybius

___________________________________________________________________________

The Legion recommended by Mareschal Saxe

___________________________________________________________________________

[161]

Of Plans of War.

THE most sublime Part of the Art Military, says the Mareschal Puyssegur, is to know how to form the Plan of a War.  From this [162] general Plan, results particular Plans of Operations, relative to the different Countries where we would sustain or carry on the War.  It is true, few arrive at the great Knowledge necessary to form the general Plan of War; but it is also true, that it is not necessary that every one should arrive at it:  It is however absolutely necessary, that all those should possess this Knowledge, who wish to rise to the first Military Ranks.

            However great Alexander is represented to us in his Battles, where he seems to do the Whole himself, he appears to me still much greater, says the Mareschal, in his general Plan for the Conquest of Asia, which he carried through and sustained in that Country, with the greatest Conduct, Knowledge, and Prudence.

            Gaining a Battle does not depend entirely on the Chief; he can only contribute to it in Part:  But to form the general Plan of a War properly, carry it through, and execute it well, the Honour is entirely due to him who commands, and who planned it. ...

___________________________________________________________________________

[174]

Of the different Kinds of War

THERE are five different Kinds of War, each of which is to be conducted differently the one from the other:  The Offensive; the Defensive; that between equal Powers; the Auxiliary, which is carried on out of our own Territories to succour a Prince our Ally, or to assist a weaker whom a more powerful Prince has attacked; and the Civil War. ...

___________________________________________________________________________

[187]

Of the Particulars or Detail of an Army

THE Plan of the War being determined, and communicated to the General intrusted with

the Command of the Army, the Number of Battalions and Squadrons he is to have under his Command is determined relatively to the Kind of War he is to carry on, and the Nature of the Country where he is to act. ...

[188]    <Commissary-General>

[190]    <Captain of Guides>

            The next Person is the Captain of the Guides, who must have Intelligence, and a perfect Knowledge of the Country.  He is always lodged near the Quarter-Master General of the Army, to whom he is subordinate.  He provides himself with Guides, and those who know the Country, and furnishes them not only to the General Officers charged with any Expedition, but to particular Officers sent on any  Command, or to Skirmishing Parties, as well as to Escorts and Convoys.  His Judgment will lead him to chuse fit People of the Country round where the Army is, and have them always ready when wanted.  He accompanies the Quarter-Master General, when he goes to prepare or reconnoitre the Routs for the March, and distributes the proper Guides to each Column.  Frequent Conversations with the Peasants whom he has taken for Guides, serve him to acquire a perfect Knowledge of the Country through which the Army is to march, and from this Knowledge particular Dispositions may be formed for the March.  If he is a Man of Penetration and Capacity, he will, in his frequent Conversations with his Guides, try to discover those who have Dexterity and Capacity for the dangerous Employment of a Spy; but this must be done with great Circumspection, and by talking with them separately and secretly, that the one Guide may never know the other is employed in this Way; that when these Guides are become useless and dismissed to make Way for others of another Part of the Country, [191]  the first  may not be able to inform against those of their Companions employed as Spies.  He must always be ready to furnish Guides, either on Foot or on Horseback, as they are required of him, and Horses are kept for this Purpose, or prest in the Neighbourhood of his Camp.  As often as the General goes to reconnoitre, the Captain accompanies him, with such of the Guides as know that Side of the Country where he goes, that the General maybe exactly informed of whatever he wants to know.

            <Waggon-Master General>

            <Fourier of the Army>

            <Cavalry>

            <General Officers>

            <Ammunition>

            <Artillery>

            <Subsistence>

            <Forage>

            <Water>

            <Straw>

            <Wood>

            <Bread>

            <Butcher’s Meat>

            <Wine, Brandy, Beer>

            <Military Chest>

            <Hospitals>

            <Baggage>

[199]    <Waggons for Artillery and Provisions>

            <Guides>

            Guides ought to be well fed and paid.  The Captain of the Guides ought to be allowed a competent Number of Horses to mount his Guides, when it is necessary to send them out on Horseback.  They ought to be guarded, especially after they have been interrogated with regard to their Knowledge of any particular Part of the Country where you have not yet penetrated, that they may not have it in their Power to give Intelligence of what has been asked them.

            These Guides ought to be renewed, according as you advance into the Enemy’s Country.  Each Column in the March ought to have at least one Guide at its Head, who must be guarded, that he may not escape, especially in Night Marches, and leave you where you do not know your Way.  It is necessary in these Cases to have two Guides in case of Accidents, and have them guarded, and [200] march them separately.  If you expect to meet the Enemy, it is necessary even to bind the Guides, as it is natural to suppose the Fear of Danger will force them to try every Means to escape.

            <Secret Expenses>

            Secret Expences, properly applied, are of the utmost Importance, and every Sovereign, well instructed in the Use of them, will leave the General absolutely Master, to carry them as high as the thinks proper.  These Expences commonly regard Spies, as well as every other Particular which contributes to the Advancement of Affairs, and Good of the Service.  And surely, the Prince will never approve of a General, who, from a wrong-headed Œconomy, has neglected the Means of procuring certain Advantages, or has exposed the Troops, fearing to make too great an Expence, in order to be instructed of every thing which passes in the Enemy’s Army.

            <Safe-Guard> 

            <Passports>

            <Contributions of Subsistence, Money, &c.>

[207]    <Secret Correspondence>

            Secret Correspondence is carried on either by Cyphers, or certain Compositions used in place of Ink.  One of the best of these Compositions is made of distilled Vinegar, in which is boiled Silver Litharge, about an Ounce of Litharge to an English Pint of Vinegar.  When settled, decant off the Vinegar from the Grounds, and it is clear as Rock Water.  This may be made Use of to write between the Lines of a Letter on any different Subject, on Paper which serves to wrap up any thing, on the blank Leaves which are commonly at the Beginning or End of Books, or on the Margins of the Leaves of a Book.  When dry, it is not possible to perceive the least Impression of the Characters traced with this Liquor.  In order to make them appear, you must make Use of Water, in which has been dissolved quick Lime mixed with Orpiment.  This Water, when decanted, is as clear as the other.  The Way [208] to use it, is to rub it gently on a Leaf of clean Paper, which you apply to what has been wrote with the first Composition.  This second Composition is so penetrating, that when applied to the Writing, if you fix several Leaves of Paper above it, the Writing will immediately distinctly appear through the Whole:  Even a Leaf of Paper wet with this Composition, and applied to the Boards of the Book, on the Leaves of which the Writing is, it will appear through the Boards; so strong is the Effect of the second Water.  These two Compositions, especially the second, must be kept in Bottles carefully cooked, that it may not evaporate, and it is necessary to renew it as often as you can perceive it grows weak:  The Writing should be neat and proper, free from Blots, nor must the Leaf be turned, or rubbed with your Hands, till the Writing is perfectly Dry.

            Another Way is, to have a Table made like that here annexed, composed of the ordinary Letters of the Alphabet, arranged in a certain Manner.  The Use of it for Writing in Cypher is excellent, and not be decyphered even by those who know how to use it; because the Key to this Table, either for writing the Letter or decyphering it, consists in a certain private Word, agreed on betwixt the two Persons in Correspondence, without the Knowledge of which Word it is impossible either to write or decypher the Writing.  You must however have agreed with him with whom you correspond, whether, when you have begun the first Letter of the Word agreed on, you are to continue to follow all the rest, to the last of that Word; or when you have wrote one Word of the Letter, you are to begin again at the first Letter of the Word agreed on.

            For Example:  If I want to write these Words:  Be on your Guard, the Enemy march to attack you.  I put on Paper the Words I intend to write, and [209] on the Side I write the Watch-word agreed on:  Let us suppose this Watch-word to be Constantinople:  Having already agreed, which is essential, that having once begun the first Letter of this Word Constantinople, I continue the Letters to the End of the Word:  Having then my Table before me, looking at it I say, what does C, the first Letter of the Word Constantinople, give to B, the first Letter of the Word Be, I look to the first Column of my Table for the capital letter C, and the Square opposite to it where is a b, and below it I find n; so I place n in the Letter I intend to send:   Then I say, what does O, the second Letter of the Word Constantinople, give to e, the second Letter of the Word Be?  and I seek, opposite to the capital Letter O of the first Column, for the Letter e, and I  find under it y, which I write at the Side of the n, the first Letter I have wrote, as you see on the Table here annexed.  I then look for the capital Letter N, being the third of the Word Constantinople, and see what it gives to o being the first Letter of the Word on, and I find it below the Letter b, which I place in my Letter, because I can take indifferently the Squares above or below, that are shut in by two Lines, and separated only by Points.  I then look what S, the fourth Letter of the Word Constantinople, gives to the Letter n, the second Letter of the Word on, and I find I, which I place  <no para>     

To face Page 209

next to h, and so on all the rest of the Letters and Words; taking Care only to separate the Words by a Point, a Comma, or placing them at the ordinary Distance, as we have agreed or judged proper.  But however it is, when the whole Letters of the Word Constantinople are done, which happens here at the second Letter of the Word the, and again at the Beginning of the Word attack, you begin the Word again, and always continue to the End, except you have agreed otherways, and begin the Word Constantinople with the Beginning of each [210] Word in your Letter.  In short, having gone thro’ the Whole of the Words proposed to be wrote, they stand thus:

ny hi hbbb pbtmy, ity yiuze pwlwn md zaarsx elm.

Be on your guard, the enemy march to attack you.

            And now the Question is, how he who receives this Billet or other Letters wrote in this Manner, goes about to decypher them.  He must then have an exact Copy of the Table, he must know the Word agreed on, and that, having begun the Watch-word, the whole Letters follow to the End; after which the Word begins again.

            Supposing then he knows all this, and wants to decypher what is wrote, he will begin thus, What does C, the first Letter of the Word Constantinople, give to n, the first Letter of the Cypher?  And he will find that C gives to n, B, which he writes apart; after which he says, what does O give to y?  and he finds e, which he writes down next B, already wrote.  In fine, he continues till he has gone through the whole Letters of the Word Constantinople, and then begins it again and again, till he has decyphered the whole Writing.  To do it methodically and with Facility, you should write the Watch-word agree on in capital Letters, distant the one from the other; you may even Number them for the more Security:  And in Proportion as you decypher the Letter you ought to write either above or below the Word the Cypher signifies; as is marked on the Table.  The same Method should be practised for writing in Cypher, and the Cypher alone copied out afterwards, when you have wrote the Whole you intend to say.  The great Affair, either in writing the Cypher or Decyphering, is to be perfectly exact in copying out the Letters.

            The Water already mentioned may be made Use of for writing in Cypher between the Lines of a [211] Letter on any indifferent Subject; which will entirely deceive the Enemy; for suppose your Spy is taken, as he is not found charged with any suspected Writing, he will probably be set at Liberty; but he is suspected, and his Papers rubbed with the second Composition, which makes the Writing appear, you then only risk your Spy, but not your Secret.

            It is true this Method is tedious, and requires much Attention; but when once accustomed to it, it goes much quicker, and there is seldom Occasion to write long Letters on these Subjects.  The Excellence of this Method is, that it cannot possibly be decyphered, without getting the Watch-word, which can only be discovered by the Persons immediately in Correspondence.  The Watch-word may be in any Language whatever, without any regard to the Language you write in.  There are also infinite Ways of concealing Letters.

            <Ways to Conceal Secret Letters>

            For Example:  Let the Person who carries them have a Staff, neither better nor worse than People of his Condition, whatever that may be, commonly use:  Let this Staff be made hollow for an Inch or two above the Crampet:  Having neatly folded up his Letter, let him place it there, and fix the Campet.

            He may also carry a Letter divided into several small Scraps of Paper, which being neatly rolled up, one can be placed in each of the Moulds of his Coat Buttons, which have been made hollow for that Purpose, and then covered with old or new Cloth, exactly according to the Coat.  Each of these Scraps may contain one Line or two of Writing, and be numbered so, that he who receives them can immediately place them together and read them.

            One of the best and surest Methods of concealing a Letter, is to put it into the Barrel of a Fowling [212] Piece, immediately above the Powder, and force down a Ball above it with an Iron Rammer:  For though the Bearer, who we suppose intitled to carry a Fowling Piece, may be suspected, and his Piece examined, unless they think of unscrewing the Breech, they never will find the Letter; for it is impossible to draw a Ball thus forced in; and if they fire off the Shot, the Letter will be so torn and burned that it is impossible to read it, or know more about it, than that it served for Wadding to the Charge.  But there are two Precautions necessary here; one is, that the Piece should have a poor Appearance, lest any Soldier take a Fancy to it and keep it, without in the least suspecting the Bearer to be [a] Spy.  The other is, that it is better the Bearer be a Soldier; and if, in Spite of the Precautions he has taken to keep bye Roads, he should meet any of the Enemy’s Parties from whom he is not sure of escaping, he ought not to attempt it; on the contrary, he ought to fire his Piece in the Air, and making a Sign to the Enemy with his Cravat, or any thing that is white, go to meet them, as if he was a Deserter.  It is probable in this Case, the Enemy will not suspect him of being a Spy; but if they should, it is impossible for them to prove it, the Letter being burned and nothing suspicious found about him.  As to his being found in a bye Road, he can answer it was owing to the Fear of meeting Parties of the Army from which he deserted.  In short, there are numberless Ways of concealing Letters; those we have mentioned are only to give an Idea of it, not doubting but those who apply themselves to it will find other and better Means.  But it is much better when your Emissary is intelligent and faithful enough to deliver his Message by Word of Mouth, having only a Watch-word or Credential to the Person with whom you are in Correspondence.

            <Spies>

            As to Spies, those you employ should be Persons of Capacity, able to know the Strength of a Fortification or Intrenchment, either from its natural Situation or from Art; what Extent of Ground a certain Number of Infantry or Cavalry occupy commonly either in Camp or on March, according to the different Fronts in which they march, and at one Glance of their Eye be able to comprehend nearly the Strength of a Camp or Post where the Enemy are lodged; and how many Cavalry or Infantry they have in their Camp or on their March, without being obliged to count the Tents or the Regiments.

            The Subjects of a neutral Prince are those who run the least Risk in serving as Spies; for under Pretence of Travelling or Traffic they can pass unsuspected from one Country to the other.

            You may also have some Officer in the Enemy’s Camp, or other Person of Ability in the Neighbourhood, who informs you of what you want to know.  As often as you write to him, you can use the Cypher and Composition mentioned, letting nothing appear but a few Lines on any indifferent Subject, and subscribing the Letter with the Name of a Relation, Countryman, or Friend, of the Person intrusted; so that if it is intercepted nothing appears, but one Friend writing to another on indifferent Subjects, or Family Affairs.

            You will have warned the Person intrusted, that if the Enemy send out a small Detachment, or try an Expedition of little Importance, he need not advise you of it; that you may not expose your Spies for Trifles.  You may also have Spies among the Enemy, by making ten or twelve of your own Soldiers desert, chusing those in whom you can trust, and who possess something in their Country, or leave their Wives or Children as Pledges of their Fidelity:  Name to each the particular Regiment in [214] which he shall inlist, and let him know, that whenever a Person shall give him a Watch-word agreed on, he shall directly bring to you the Letter or any Intelligence that Person shall give him.  These Soldiers should not know each other, and ought each to have a different Watch-word; so that if one is taken or proves unfaithful, the rest may not be in Danger.  Neither should you name the Person of the Enemy’s Army with whom you are in Intelligence, nor give him any Mark to know him by.  It is sufficient they have Orders to return when their Watch-word is given them.  After having taken these Precautions, you write to the Person intrusted, that in such a Regiment there is such a Man whom you have sent there, whom he may know by such a Mark, Name, or Watch-word; and describing in the same Manner the rest who have deserted for that Purpose.  If your Correspondent has only a Letter to send you, it is not necessary he discover himself by giving it with his own Hand:  But having exactly observed the Marks by which the Solder is to be known, he can send him the Watch-word and Letter by another trusty Person:  Of if the Case admits of it without Inconvenience, he can wait till Night, and when it is dark, in Disguise, passing by the Soldier, give the Watch-word and Letter.  We only mention this Sort of Spies not to omit any thing; though it appears to be extremely difficult to have certain Intelligence by Means so complicated.

            It is of great Importance to gain some of those employed in the Enemy’s Secretary of State’s Office, in that of the Secretary at War, or of the General in Chief, who give you Intelligence of the Resolutions taken.  There are different Ways to succeed in this, needless here to mention.  A Golden Key opens every Lock.

            [215]  In general you must endeavour to draw Intelligence and Instructions from the Spies by every possible Means, but never open yourself to them.  You should employ several of them for the same Subject, who are absolutely ignorant of each other, never see them but in private; make them talk on different Subjects; let them speak a great deal, but say you little, in order to discover their Character, and what they are fit to be employed in; then set other Spies on them, to discover if they are not employed on both Sides.

            If you would execute an Enterprize, after believing from the concurrent Reports of several Spies, that they have gold Truth, carry them however along with you separately.  You may also gain Intelligence from the People of the Country, whom Traffic or their own private Affairs draw to the Camp, or the Towns, who sometimes become Spies without knowing it, as do the Prisoners, from whom also you may artfully draw Intelligence in general Conversation.  The first of these, the People of the Country, should never be questioned; but artful sensible People should be employed, who, without any seeming Curiosity, lead them to talk on different Subjects, and insensibly draw from them those things you want to be informed of.

            When you would know from a Prisoner what passes in the Army or Country he belongs to, send before-hand to the same Ward, in the Prison where he is confined, a Person in whom you can trust, who speaks the Enemy’s Language, is drest in their Manner, and who in every respect bears the Marks of a Prisoner.  If there are several Prisoners, they must be separated in different Wards, in each of which there should be such a Person, who will draw from the Prisoners whatever you want to know, and thus you will also know how far they all agree in what they say.  But it is [216] proper to have questioned the Prisoners before Hand, of what Regiment, Town, or Province they are, that the supposed Prisoner may not announce himself to be of the same, and so be discovered; for it is certain, that if the Prisoner believes the other to be really in the same Situation with himself, a very few Hours Conversation serves to draw from him every thing he knows with regard to the Army or Place where he served.